EPIsode 2.2: Why Empires Declared a War on Drugs, with Diana Kim

Today on Scope Conditions: how the paper-pushers of Empires reshaped colonialism in Southeast Asia.

Our guest is Dr. Diana Kim, an Assistant Professor at Georgetown’s Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service and the Hans Kohn member (2021-22) at the Institute for Advanced Studies’ School of Historical Studies. In her award-winning book, Empires of Vice, Diana unpacks the puzzle of opium prohibition in the French and British colonies of Southeast Asia. As she traces out the twists and turns of colonial drug policies, Diana asks how states define the problems they need to solve, and how policymakers come to see crisis in the things they once took for granted. 

For decades, opium was a cornerstone of European colonialism in places like Burma, Malaya, and French Indochina. At their peak, opium taxes made up more than half of all colonial revenues. At the same time, levying a surcharge on what they deemed a peculiarly Asian vice gave the colonizers a sense of moral superiority over their subjects. But over the late 19th and early 20th centuries, colonial governments across Southeast Asia made a sharp reversal toward opium prohibition. 

Why did the French and British choose to crack down on what they had once seen as a fiscal bedrock of empire? How did empires that had grown up so tightly entangled with the opium trade come to see the drug as so deeply troubling? As Diana contends, this dramatic about-face was driven less by dictates from London and Paris and more by the evolving understandings of low-level bureaucrats on the ground in the colonies. Through the day-to-day work of administering policies and keeping records, these minor functionaries developed pet theories, drew casual causal inferences, and constructed new official realities that filtered up to the highest reaches of government – shaping perceptions, issue frames, and policy debates in the metropoles.

We talk with Diana about how imperial drug policies across the region were recast from the bottom-up as rank-and-file bureaucrats puzzled, and often bungled, their way through the everyday challenges of running an empire. We also discuss how Diana pieced together these stories: how she turned troves of archival paperwork, strewn across three continents, into coherent narratives. She tells us how she reconstructed colonial administrators’ interpretive struggles and how she connected the dots from ideas developed on the ground to political debates and decisions back in Europe. 

We also talk with Diana about the unusual portrait she paints of colonial governance: one in which the colonizers assume power before they’ve really figured out what to do with it. Rather than a confident empire imposing its will on its subjects, we see decision-making processes shot through with misperception, unintended consequences, and inner anxieties. We get Diana to reflect on how her account squares with common understandings of imperialism and of the state itself.

Works discussed in the episode:

Heclo, Hugh. 1974. Modern social politics in Britain and Sweden: From relief to income maintenance. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Levi, Margaret. 1989. Of Rule and Revenue. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Lipsky, Michael. 1980. Street-Level Bureaucracy: The Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Lodwick, Kathleen L. 1995. Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874-1917. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.

Morgan, Kimberly, and Ann S. Orloff. 2017. The Many Hands of the State: Theorizing Political Authority and Social Control. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nadelmann, Ethan. 1990. "Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International." International Organization, 44(4), 479–526.

Scott, James C. 1998. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Tilly, Charles. 1992. Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992. Cambridge: Blackwell.

Zacka, Bernardo. 2017. When the State Meets the Street: Public Service and Moral Agency. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.